LDH Purification lab Report Essays

LDH Purification lab Report Essays LDH Purification lab Report Paper LDH Purification lab Report Paper OLD was decontaminated from the ammonium sulfate accelerated protein blend by liking chromatography and its action was concentrated by spectrophotometers assurance of NADIA at 340 NM. From Pierce BCC test of rough homogenate, introductory protein focus was demonstrated to be 100 MGM/ml. The last protein centralization of the pooled partiality test was demonstrated to be 0. 2 MGM/ml. It was discovered that the all out explicit action of OLD was 58. 5 mol/min/MGM, and yield of 0. 6%. Despite the fact that we were effective in sanitizing OLD protein, further advances can be taken to build the yield. Materials and Methods Cell Lysine and Extraction of OLD: Approximately 40 g of minced chicken bosom eat (40. 327 g) is mixed with ml cold extraction cradle in four 30-seconds blasts for homogenate of the muscle tissue. The extraction cushion contained mm Tries-HCI (pH-7. 4), mm 2-Merchantable, mm Phenylmethylsulfonylflouride (AMPS), 1 mm Ethylene Dianne pulled in corrosive (EDIT). The homogeneities technique was completed vulnerable space to forestall the category of proteins. The homogenate was centrifuged at 15,000 RPM for 20 minutes at 40 C. The supernatant was sifted through two layers of cheesecloth to expel lipids from the supernatant. The all out volume was noted and three 0. Ml aliquots (unrefined concentrate) were put away at - 200 C. Ammonium sulfate precipitation: 60% ammonium sulfate fixation was utilized to accelerate proteins. 0. 39 g of ammonium sulfate per ml of the supernatant was added steadily to the supernatant for 15-20 min with ceaseless delicate blending at 40 C. The blend was centrifuged for 20 minutes at 1 5,000 RPM at 40 C. The supernatant was disposed of and the pellet was put away at - 200 c. Dialysis: Ammonium precipitation prompts high centralization of salts in protein blend that can meddle with further filtration steps. So as to evacuate abundance salts, dialysis was performed. The pellet was suspended in Tries-AMPS cushion (10 edge Tries-HCI, pH 8. 6, 0. 5 mm 2-Merchantable, and mm proportion of EDIT) and blended delicately until it disintegrated at 40 C. Volume of ml protein blend was included the dialysis tubing and hatched twice for the time being with two IL support changes (Same cradle as extraction cushion that was utilized for cell lysine). After two hatching, protein blend was reacted delicately and centrifuged for 10 minutes at 15,RPM at ICC. Pellet was disposed of, absolute volume of supernatant was noted and three 0. 1 ml aliquots were gathered. Partiality Chromatography: Isobaric Blue section was utilized to isolate OLD from different proteins. Ml divisions were gathered in thirteen test tubes. Segment was first washed with Tries-AMPS cushion followed by expansion of protein blend. At that point, ml AND Buffer (mm Tries-HCI pH-8. 6, 0. Mm 2-Merchantable, mm Lithium acetic acid derivation and 1 mm AND+) was included trailed by NADIA (mm Its-HCI PH 8. 6, mm NADIA and 0. Mm 2-Merchantable). Between each means, section was washed with ml Tries-AMPS Buffer. Each portion was exposed to sponginess perusing of Mann. For permeableness over 1. NM, 1:10 weakenings were done. Movement Assay: We utilized OLD Enzyme test to quantify the measure of OLD action in our protein blend. OLD impetuses the change of lactate to private an d AND+ to NADIA. The NADIA can be resolved spectrophotometers at 340 NM. The OLD examine was acted in the rough homogenate, desalted portion and six pinnacle divisions from the Isobaric blue section. A mixed drink arrangement was set up by blending lactate stock arrangement (120 edge lithium lactate, 10 mm Tries-HCI; pH 8. 6), AND+ stock arrangement (12 mm AND+, 10 mm Tries HCI; pH 8. 6) and bicarbonate stock arrangement (18 mm Enhance, 0. 5 M Nasal) in the proportion of in cavetti. 0 micrometers of the example is then included and the test retention is estimated at Mann. In the event that sponginess was over 1. 5, examples were weakened. Protein Assay: The Pierce BCC Protein Assay (Thermo Scientific) is a cleanser good plan dependent on bioscience corrosive (BCC) for the colorimetric identification and quantization of all out protein focus. A progression of standard arrangement of Bovine Serum Albumin (BAS) extending from 0-2000 pig/ml was set up from a stock arrangement of 2 MGM/ml BAS. Pause in weakened unrefined (1:500, 1 :250), desalted (1:100, 1:50), and 6 pinnacle portions from isobaric blue segment (1:10, 1:5) ere stacked in magnifying lens alongside break in BCC working reagent. Magnifying instrument was hatched for smaller than normal at ICC and afterward the receptiveness was estimated at Mann. Results/Discussion The motivation behind this examination was to separate and decontaminate OLD chemical from chicken muscle tissue utilizing an assortment of procedures including homogeneities, ammonium sulfate precipitation, dialysis, and proclivity chromatography. Movement and Protein examine were utilized to follow the general measure of OLD present in the examples. Rough Extraction: Chicken muscle tissue was homogeneity in a blender with cold extraction cradle so as to else cells, discharging OLD into slurry of tissue landmarks. Centrifugation isolated layers, cores, and other enormous cell segments to a pellet leaving a supernatant of unrefined item. Controlling temperature was a significant thought after homogeneities since in addition to the fact that this stepped discharges proteins like OLD from the cell, yet it additionally discharges proteases that would now be able to interface to debase the OLD. Keeping tests on ice, pre-cooling the support, and maintaining a strategic distance from abundance dynamic vitality through traditionalist mixing were strategies used to limit action of these proteases. After filtration through cheesecloth, our last volume of unrefined homogenate test ml, considerably more volume than anticipated. Expansion of beyond what ml of cushion volume could have expanded the volume. Other conceivable clarification is that progressively strong parts, for example, fats were available in the example and subsequently, over 20 minutes of centrifugation was required. Desalted Sample: 60% ammonium sulfate is added to the rough concentrate that accelerates OLD proteins. The subsequent 40% pellet hypothetically contains a large portion of the first OLD, which is re-suspended in exceptionally less volume (ml) to make a progressively thought test. This procedure prompts high grouping of salts in bad blend that can meddle with ensuing cleansing advances. Ml protein blend experienced dialysis technique that expels abundance salts and our last volume after dialysis was ml. One potential clarification for increment in our volume could be that extraction support got blended in with protein blend either because of tubing spilling or tubing cuts not being appropriately fixed. Partiality Chromatography: Isobaric Blue section is a liking segment, which is explicit to dehydrogenate type proteins, because of a compound basically like NADIA being appended covalently joined to the segment. 13 divisions were chosen and receptiveness was estimated at Mann to check nearness of OLD protein in the portions. 1:10 weakening was performed if permeableness perusing was over 1. NM since it spectrographically demonstrates immersion and under 1% light arriving at the indicator. During the expansion of protein blend (fraction# 4), high sponginess perusing of NM was acquired (Fig. 1). This could be because of part of non-dehydrogenate-type proteins present in our example that got eluted first during proclivity chromatography. Second pinnacle was seen after AND+ was included since AND arrangement brings about the expulsion of the inexactly bound protein. Third pinnacle was seen after NADIA was included since NADIA arrangement brings about arrival of most extreme OLD proteins (Fig l) Enzyme Activity Assay: The OLD action was estimated spectrophotometers by estimating the sponginess of NADIA at 340 NM. Three pinnacle parts were chosen for this test dependent on their receptiveness esteems acquired in the wake of including AND+ (fraction# 6, 7, 8) and other three subsequent to including NADIA in the fondness chromatography step (fraction# 10, 1 , 12). An enormous movement of 141 mol/min/ml was seen at fraction# 7(PUFF ) which showed that we had parcel of proteins present in our example. Second pinnacle movement was seen t part demonstrating that increasingly OLD proteins is available in this division than in fraction# 11 (PUFF) (fig. 1). In light of this data, we chose part #10 with respect to our protein examine. Desalted demonstrated most elevated movement among all the examples (Tablet ) conceivable because of blunders happening during dialysis clarified beforehand. Figure 1. Retentiveness readings of eluted acquired from fondness chromatography with OLD movement for 6 pinnacle divisions. The desalted portion was stacked to the Isobaric blue segment and proteins were eluted with Tries-AMPS, AND+ and NADIA wash hence. The sponginess at 280 NM of eluted were estimated after ACH gathered divisions. The OLD movement was determined from the permeableness esteems got at Mann. Protein Assay: We utilized BCC Pierce Assay to decide protein focuses in our protein blend. BAS standard bend was made for arrangement of weakenings extending from 0-2000 pig/ml and direct chart condition was utilized to figure protein fixations for the examples (Table 1). In light of Table 1, with each resulting decontamination step, protein fixation diminishes as test become progressively thought with just OLD protein. Explicit movement should increment and absolute action should diminish with very filtration step as tests get less and less weakened.

Philosophies - Ideologies and Theories of Education- myassignmenthelp

Question: Talk about thePhilosophies, Ideologies and Theories of Education. Answer: I won't concur with Marxists who state a school is a challenged site between the individuals who have power and the individuals who don't have in the way that information is the one which separates individuals in learning organizations. In spite of the fact that schools recreate class imbalance on the grounds that the rich takes their kids to the best schools, in training individuals have equivalent opportunity to succeed in light of the fact that their evaluations relies upon their capacity and endeavors and not influence (Gutek, 2014). The incredible and the individuals who are not amazing are equivalent since power doesn't assume any job in improving one to achieve scholastic evaluations (Shan, 2012). In light of what separates individuals in schools, it is more right than wrong to state that schools are challenged locales for the individuals who make a solid effort to perform better and the individuals who don't see the significance of devoting their endeavors for better execution. This is on the grounds that training levels the individuals who have power and the individuals who don't have. For instance on the off chance that one is amazing and neglects to perform better, the partners may not perceive the individual the manner in which they can perceive the individuals who endeavor to accomplish better evaluations. I will concur with Marxists who guarantee that entrepreneur monetary framework makes purchaser wants through the control of dreams in advertising. Entrepreneur monetary framework prompts serious markets which permits each firm to do the best so as to fulfill their client requests in a way which can make them to keep up their steadfastness (Martin Blackwell, 2011). Thusly, client wants are made through control of dreams in the way that customers like being related with firms that battle to fulfill their necessities. In free enterprise financial framework, capitals are claimed by private people or organizations meaning buyers must be treated as significant resources (Lewis, 2012). In this sort of financial frameworks, organizations must make client wants through guaranteeing legitimate advertising methodologies are utilized. In monetary frameworks where rivalry exists, hallucinations must be controlled during advertising to guarantee that the organization makes the customers to want buying items from that organization. In free enterprise financial framework, rivalry assumes a noteworthy job in making the organizations to attempt their best to meet shopper desires. Each firm battles to utilize the best showcasing methodologies so as to guarantee shopper dedication is kept up. At the point when an organization controls figments in showcasing, buyer wants increments since it causes them to get mindful of specific items or administrations, and furthermore understands the significance of buying them f rom a specific organization. As indicated by Marxist, instructors ought to be effectively assume a job in battling for monetary and social equity. This implies they ought to be socialites, activists and transformative learned people (Liston, 2015). In light of this point, I will concur with Marxists concerning the job which educators should play. This is on the grounds that in a school setting, offspring of various classes meet with a comparable point of accomplishing training. To kill the issue of class disparity in the training division, educators are the ones who can do as such by guaranteeing all understudies are instructed without thinking about their social class. Being an instructor, it is imperative to guarantee the way in which understudies in schools which are said to have a place with the rich are educated is a similar manner by which understudies in the learning establishments which are said to have a place with the poor are instructed (Richard, 2011). Educators ought to consistently guarantee that understudies are made a decision about dependent on their presentation and not as indicated by their social class. Thusly, all understudies will see the significance of buckling down on the grounds that they will feel that training is a higher priority than their social class. References Gutek, G. (2014). Philosophical, ideological and hypothetical points of view on instruction. USA: Pearson Lewis, T. E. (2012). Mapping the Constellation of Educational Marxism(s). Instructive Philosophy Theory, 4498-114 Martin, C Blackwell, S. (2011). Understanding R. S. Dwindles Today: Analysis, Ethics, and the Aims of Education. Malden, MA: Wiley Blackwell Richard, B. (2011). Marxist Thought: Still Primus Inter Pares for Understanding and Opposing the Capitalist System. Diary of Thought, 46(1-2), 87-98. Shan, T. 2012. The Academic Career and Achievements of Jean-Claude Delaunay. World Review of Political Economy, 3(4), 211-234. Liston, D. P. (2015). Neo-Marxism and Schooling. Instructive Theory, 65(3), 239-243. doi:10.1111/edth.****0

Particle Physics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 7000 words

Molecule Physics - Essay Example Quest for a total or full molecule material science model is still on and specialists are investigating the choices of either delivering a totally new imaginative hypothesis or model or building a proficient model blending the relative gravity and the Standard Models. This inquiry saw the rise of an assortment of new-age models past the Standard Model. Notwithstanding, consolidating these speculations isn't so straightforward as it sounds and there are a few troubles that should be handled (Green et. al., 1987). These models are expand upon various fundamental presumptions and ideas and this is the reason one thinks that its hard to union such models. QFT relies upon molecule fields inserted in the level space-time of uncommon relativity though, General Relativity accounts gravity as a bend inside space-time that changes as mass moves (Zee A., 2003). The straightforward choice of consolidating these two hypotheses considering gravity as another molecule field appears to wind up making the purported renormalization issue. According to the conventional comprehension, gravity particles would pull in one another and include all the associations bringing about numerous interminable qualities which can't be effectively counterbalanced by methematical intercessions (Linde, 1990), in this way precluding the chance of getting any reasonable or limited outcomes or qualities. This result is interestingly with quantum electrodynamics where, the expansion of the cooperations brings about similarly lesser interminable qualities which can be expelled or offset through renormalization (Banks, 1985). The long-go powers like the electromagnetic and gravity powers are accepted to be ruminated by massless particles with turn j 1 and thusly, legitimate portrayal of such massless particles in quantum field hypothesis (QFT) is significant (Aitchison and Hey, 1989). This directionally gets the interesting methodology of new gravity showing that gravity may not be a segment of key material science. Be that as it may, this idea of new gravity hypothesis has been marked to be a misinformed one by Steven Weinberg and Edward Witten (See, Jackson and Okun, 2001). Gravity was guessed to be a rising phenemonon during the 1980s and supporting this, numerous speculations like the 'Preon hypotheses', Technicolor speculations', and so on proceeded to respect that gluons may be composite. Seeing this, Weinberg and Witten came out with 'off limits hypothesis' called the 'Weinberg-Witten Theorem' that prohibits the theoretical composite and rising speculations (Wienberg and Witten, HUTP-80). This hypo thesis demonstrates that a communicating graviton can't rise up out of a standard Quantum Field Theory (QFT) in a similar space-time. The Weinberg-Witten hypothesis disallows the presence of any massless particles with helicity j>1 in any hypothesis with a Lorentz covariant vitality force tensor and furthermore confines charged massless particles of helicity>1/2 in any hypothesis with a Lorentz covariant saved current. This fundamentally forbids the presence of both graviton and the gluon however this can be stayed away from because of measure balances. Taking on from here, this paper continues to decipher and

Columbia MBA Interview with Cassandra Pittman

Here’s a talk with Cassandra Pittman, a former admissions committee member at INSEAD and recent graduate of Columbia Business School. Thank you Cassandra for sharing your thoughts and experiences with us! This interview is the latest in an Accepted.com blog series featuring interviews with current MBA students, offering readers a behind-the-scenes look at top MBA programs. We hope to offer you a candid picture of student life, and what you should consider as you prepare your MBA application. Accepted: First, can you tell us a little about yourself – where are you from? What and where did you study as an undergraduate and when did you graduate? Cassandra: I grew up mostly in California, but moved to London when I was 18 to attend Richmond: The American University in London. I graduated in  2002  with a  degree in International Relations  and then moved to Brussels to pursue my  MA in European Integration and Development at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel. I completed that program in  2003  and moved back to London. Accepted: I see from your LI profile that youve worked at INSEAD and London Business School (and studied at INSEAD). Can you talk about your experience with these European business schools? Cassandra: My experience with both schools was absolutely fantastic. Both have great programs and communities, and a true commitment to developing truly global business leaders. I had the special opportunity to attend one of INSEADs Management Acceleration Program  while I was working there. It was this program that first got me seriously thinking about pursuing an MBA. I already knew the INSEAD community was fantastic, and with the opportunity to experience it first hand, I was  also overwhelmingly impressed with the quality of the  teaching and thought leadership. It is also one of the few executive education programs in which graduates are granted alumni status. I owe so much of where I am now to my experience at both schools. Not only did I learn and grow professionally, I also met and worked with amazing people from all over the world.  I met many of my best friends through work I did at LBS and INSEAD friendships which now span literally every corner of the globe. Accepted: Why did you decide to attend Columbia Business School?   Cassandra: I  felt I had reached a crossroads in my career; I had learned enough about my role that I didnt feel challenged on a daily basis and I knew that if I took one more step up in the education industry, it would be difficult to ever try anything else. I also knew that if I was going to go to business school in the US, Columbia was the only school Id want to attend. Quality – in teaching, in rankings, etc. – was obviously a top priority, but equally important to me was the diversity in the class. I joined Columbias January term, which is about 50% international. Accepted: What were some of your favorite things about Columbia?  Are there any things you wish would have been different about the program? Top three best things about Columbia: 1) The people, especially my fellow classmates. 2) The location. For professional, personal, and social reasons New York City simply cant be beat. 3) The University. The CBS experience extends beyond CBS to the knowledge, resources and network of one of the best universitys in the world. I started the program in January  2011. At the time, CBS did not have grade non-disclosure. I believe strongly that GND helps to foster a strong, more collaborative community  and allows students to stretch themselves in challenging electives that cover unfamiliar subject matter. While I was a student, we voted to adopt GND, which was a welcome change. In my perfect world, we would have had it from our first semester (in time for Corporate Finance!), but, thankfully, future classes wont have the same problem. Accepted: I see you are now working at Capgemini Consulting. Can you tell us about the role Columbia played in securing that position? Cassandra: There is no way Id be at Capgemini now if it werent for having gone to CBS. Career Services provided the gateway and structure for the career search, but at least as important were my classmates. I cant tell you how many hours we spent giving each other mock cases, and the student run clubs also provided invaluable information for interview preparation. Accepted: Do you have any advice for some of our applicants who will be applying to Columbia? Cassandra: Do well on your tests, of course, but know that that is not going to make you stand out.  Identify what your story is and tell it in a compelling way. Oh, and dont freak out in week two of Corporate Finance. Although it wont seem this way at the time, I promise you will know your stuff by the time final exams roll around. For one-on-one guidance on the Columbia application, please see our Columbia Business School packages. For specific advice on how to create the best application for CBS see Lindas Columbia 2013 Essay Questions, Deadlines, and Tips. //

The British Of The Colonists - 1260 Words

In the 1700s, the Colonists were enraged how the British Parliament were treating them. The British Parliament had been constantly ignoring their rights and forcing taxes upon the colonies. This set an outroar in the colonies, especially in Massachusetts. Parliament had created new laws that limited the Massachusetts-bay in shipping and landing goods and also an act that for a better regulation government in this providence. All of the colonists deemed this as â€Å"Impolitic, unjust, and cruel, as well as unconstitutional, and most dangerous and destructive of American rights†(Declaration and Resolves, para. 3) This forced them to send Parliament a document called, Declaration and Resolves of the First Continental Congress. This document was†¦show more content†¦After getting their independence from Britain. They made sure this would never happen again by making it a part of their Bill of Rights. This was Ammendment three, and it state that no soldier â€Å"In time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.† (US Const. Amend. III) The only way for a soldier to be quartered is if they got prescribed by law and have gotten consent by the owner of the house. Through the British Parliament s actions, the newly, independent country now has a safeguard to never house soldiers without their consent. The next grievance the colonies faced would be the British forcing taxes upon the colonists, without their consent. During this time, Parliament was full of British people and no colonists. This was a problem because the Colonists then had no vote or say in anything they passed. Through not having any colonists vote, they passed an act that put taxes on all colonial good exported and bought. After it was voted in, the colonists were made and coined the term â€Å"No taxation without representation†. This term meant that they can not get taxed if they were not apart of the vote or in Parliament. The colonists agreed and put this into the document of declarations and resolves, and said â€Å"every idea of taxation internal or external, for raising a revenue on the subjects, in America, without their consent.†Show MoreRelatedThe Differences Between The British And The Colonists1142 Words   |  5 Pages Most colonists referred to themselves as English subjects until 1763, when the administrative changes and enforcement of imperial policies brought the differences between the British and the colonists. These differences prevailed between 1763 and 1776, when the British enforced series of policies and acts/taxes that restricted the colonists on certain things under the Grenville ministry, this then led to the colonists intensified resistance through different types of protests and revolts towardsRead MoreThe Colonists Actions And British Government s Responses881 Words   |  4 Pages3. 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What Makes Frankenstein A Gothic Novel - 877 Words

Ryan Watts Mrs. Shroder English IV December 4, 2016 What makes Frankenstein a gothic novel? Mary Shelley creates a sense of gloom, mystery, and suspense, in her novel Frankenstein. The book generates these perceptions though the setting and the terrible events that go on throughout the book. Gothic novels came from the English genre of fiction popular in the 18th and 19th centuries. Gothics are defined by the mysterious and horrific atmosphere, similar to that of Mary Shelley’s writing. Frankenstein is a gothic novel because of the combined elements of extreme and sinister landscapes, horrifying events, supernatural elements, and a passionate, wilful villain. The first reason why Frankenstein fits into the gothic genre is because of the†¦show more content†¦The monster s appearance causes his creator to abandon him and prevents him from normal human interaction. He is forced to learn about the world on his own and spends most of his time watching others. Frankenstein is not the only one negatively affected by his existence. In the process of bringing the monster to life, Victor had deprived himself of rest and health, causing him to fall ill for several months. Shortly after his recovery, Victor learns his younger brother has been murdered. Frankenstein has killed his creator’s brother and framed an innocent girl to get back at Victor for abandoning him. After the girl is executed, Victor becomes consumed with guilt knowing he is responsible for two of his family members deaths. The monster does not stop there, he goes on to kill Victor’s friend Henry and fiance, Elizabeth. Because of his creation, Victor is haunted by depression and guilt for most of his life and died a lonely death hunting Frankenstein. Another reason why Frankenstein fits into the gothic genre is the supernatural elements it presents. The most obvious supernatural element is the creation of the monster, Frankenstein. The mysterious ways in which Victor Frankenstein brought the monster to life were unclear, adding to the sinister feeling of the novel and reinforcing it in the gothic genre. However Victor brought him to life gave him superhuman speed and strength; â€Å"He bounded over the crevices in the ice, among which I had walkedShow MoreRelatedMary Shelleys Frankenstein: A Gothic Novel1595 Words   |  7 PagesShelly’s Frankenstein is one of the greatest Gothic novels to come out during the Romantic Period. Frankenstein is a prime example of what a Gothic novel should present to its reader through the genre’s twisted themes. Even though it was written in the Romantic period, Mary Shelley still wrote Frankenstein to be a Gothic work of literature. Many characteristics of Gothic novel can be seen within this novel. 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Rule of law under Indian Constitution free essay sample

INTRODUCTION India being one of the most powerful democratic nation in the world, guided by the Constitution, which declares it to be Secular, Socialist, Republic and at the same time we are governed by Rule of Law. Law is the supreme authority which confers rights to its citizens and under which most important is the â€Å"Equality before the law† and â€Å"Equal protection of Law†. The constitution of India has been made the supreme law of the country and other laws are required to be in conformity with it. Any law which is found in violation of any provision of the constitution, particularly, the fundamental rights, is declared void. The Indian constitution also incorporate the first principle of Dicey i. e. equality before law and equal protection of laws. The Rule of Law embodied in Article 14 is the â€Å"basic feature† of the Indian Constitution and hence it cannot be destroyed even by an amendment of the Constitution under Article 368 of the Constitution. In India, the meaning of Rule of Law has been applied differently in different cases by the judiciary. Before moving further, dimensions of Article 14 of the Constitution of India is very vital to discuss. Both positive as well as negative discrimination of this Article came and Supreme Court and various High Courts from time to time have summarized their decisions in different cases. Dicey’s rule of law has been adopted and incorporated in the Indian Constitution. The Preamble itself enunciates the ideals of justice, liberty and equality. In chapter III of the Constitution, these concepts are enshrined as fundamental rights and are thus made enforceable. The Constitution is supreme and all the three organs of the government, viz. legislature, executive and judiciary are subordinate to and have to act in accordance with it. The principle of judicial review is embodied in the Constitution and subjects can approach the High Courts and Supreme Court for the enforcement of fundamental rights guaranteed under Indian Constitution. No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law or of his property save by the authority of law. The government and the public officals are also not above the law. They are also subject to the jurisdiction of ordinary courts of law and for similar wrongs are to be tried and punished similarly. They are not immune from the ordinary legal process nor is any provision made regarding separate administration courts and tribunals. In public services too, the doctrine of equality is accepted. Thus, it appears that the doctrine of rule of law is embodied in the Indian Constitution, and is treated as the basic structure of the Constitution. The guarantee of equality before the law is an aspect of what Dicey calls the rule of law in England. Rule of Law has many different facets and because of its indiscriminate promiscuous use, has meant different things to different people at different times. In simpler terms, this means that no man is above law and that every person, whatever be his rank or condition, is subject to the jurisdiction of ordinary courts. Also, it requires that no person shall be subjected to harsh, uncivilized or discriminatory treatment even when the object is the securing of the paramount exigencies of law and order. It is the basic rule of governance for any enlightened civilized society’s effort as it is not merely a legalistic slogan. It is a kind of commitment to certain traditional principles and values. Dicey’s rule of law has been embodied in Article 14 of the Constitution which is the â€Å"basic feature† and hence it can’t be destroyed even by an amendment of the Constitution under Article 368 of the Constitution. RULE OF LAW: MEANING Dicey has included three distinct though kindered ideas in Rule of Law. 1. Supremacy of law Explaining the first principle, Dicey states that rule of law means that the absolute supremacy or predominance of regular law as opposed to the influence of arbitrary power or wide discretionary power. Acc. To him, the Englishmen were ruled by the law and by the law alone; a man with us may be punished for a breach of law, but can be punished for nothing else. Simply it means the absolute supremacy of law as opposed to the arbitrary power of the Government. If there is cogent evidence of commission of a grave crime for which an ordinary citizen would be arrested, the law cannot be differently applied depending on the status of the person. However high you may be, law is above you. 2. Equality before law- It means that subjection of all classes to the ordinary law of the land administered by ordinary law courts. This means that no one is above law with the sole exception of the monarch who can do no wrong. Dicey, explained this principle of the rule of law as there must be equality before the law or the equal subjection of all classes to the ordinary law of the land administered by the ordinary law courts. Acc. To him, in England, all persons were subject to one and the same law, and there were no extraordinary tribunals or special courts for officers of the government and the other authorities. Though he criticized the French legal system of droit administratif in which there were separate Administrative Tribunals for deciding cases between the officials of the State and the Citizens. Acc. To him, exemption of the civil servants from the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts of law and providing them with special tribunals was the negation of equality. The Constution has further taken care to provide us with bulwark that guards the freedom of an average citizen, it is the law court. Courts of justice are more important than even the military to guard the freedom of the country and of the individual by enforcing adherence to the rule of law. In the case of, State of West Bengal v. Anwar Ali Sarkar , it was clearly held that â€Å" all persons shall be treated alike both in the privileges conferred and liabilities imposed by the laws. Equal laws should be applied to all in the same situations, and there should be no discrimination between one person and another. † Thus, the simple rule is that the like should be treated alike and not that unlike should be treated alike. Also, the Supreme Court in Basheshar Nath’s case in 1959 observed that the principle of the Rule of Law was an essential element of the guarantee of equality. 3. Judge made Constitution- We may consider the position prevailing in India vis-a-vis the third principle i. e. , the doctrine of Judge made Constitution or predomination of legal spirit. Until recently, this principle was being studied and examined in context of interpreting the provisions of the Constitution and in Chief Settlement Commr. v Om Prakash , the Supreme Court observed: â€Å"In our constitutional system, the central and most characteristic feature is the concept of of rule of law, which means, in the present context, the authority of the law courts to test all administrative action by the standard of legality. The administrative or executive action that does not meet the standard will be set aside if the aggrieved party or person brings the appropriate action in the competent court. The Rule of Law rejects the conception of the dual state in which the governmental action is placed in a privileged position of immunity from contrl by law. Such a notion is foreign to our basic constitutional concept. † (emphasis supplied) The First and the second aspects apply to Indian system but the third aspect of Dicey’s rule of law does not apply to Indian system as the source of rights of Individuals is the Constitution of India. The Constitution is the supreme Law of the land and all laws passed by the legislature must be consistent with the provisions of the Constitution. Equal protection of the laws: The guarantee of equal protection of laws is similar to one embodied in the 14th Amendment to the American Constitution. This has been interpreted to mean subjection to equal law, applying to all in the same circumstances. In Raghubir Singh v. State of Haryana the court held that, â€Å" The rule of law imposes a duty upon the State to take special measures to prevent and punish brutality by police methodology. Exceptions to the Rule of Law: This rule of equality is, however not an absolute rule and there are number of exceptions to it. (i)â€Å"equality before the law† does not mean the ‘powers of the private citizens are the same as the powers of the public officials’. Thus, a police officer has the power to arrest while no other private person has this power. Rule of Law explicitly doesn’t require that these powers should be clearly defined by the law and that abuse of authority by public officers must be punished by ordinary courts in the same manner as illegal acts committed by any private person. (ii)The rule of law doesn’t prevent certain classes of persons being subject to special courts. Thus, the members of armed forces are controlled by military laws. Also under Article 361 of the Indian Constitution, during the term of his/her office, the Governor of a state or the President shall not be answerable to any criminal offences. (iii)Today ministers and other executive bodies are given very wide discretionary powers by a statute. And as a result of which such power is been abused. Today, a large no. of legislations in the form of delegated legislation i. e. , rules, orders are been made by the ministers and it is not directly under the Parliament’s power. (iv)Certain members of the society are governed by special rules in their professions, i. e. , lawyers, doctors, members of armed forces and police. Such clauses are treated differently from ordinary citizens. The Constitution itself contains provisions which, under certain circumstances, limit the effectiveness of Art. 14. (i)The scope of right to equality U/A 14 has been considerably restricted by the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976. The new Article 31-C added by the amendment act provides that the laws made by the State for implementing the Directive Principles contained in clause (b) or clause (c) of Article 39 can’t be challenged on the ground that they are violative of Article 14. In Sanjeev Coke manufacturing co. v. Bharat cooking Coal Ltd. The Supreme Court has held that â€Å"where Art. 31-C comes in, Article 14 goes out. (ii)Article 359(1) provides that where a proclamation of emergency is in operation the President may, by order, declare that the right to move any court for the enforcement of such rights conferred by Part III( except Arts. 20 and 21) shall remain suspended. Thus, if the President of India issues an order, where a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation, enforcement of Article 12 may be suspended for the period during which the proclamation is in force. (iii)Article 361 lays down that the President and the Governors are exempted from any criminal proceeding during the tenure of their office. (iv)Under International Law, foreign sovereign and ambassadors enjoy full immunity from any judicial process. This is also available to enemy aliens for acts of war. Article 14 permits classification but prohibits class legislation. The equal protection of laws guaranteed by Article 14 does not mean that all laws must be general in character. It does not mean that the same laws should apply to all persons. It does not mean that every law must have universal application for, all persons are not, by nature, Attainment or circumstances in the same position. The varying needs of different classes of persons often require separate treatment. From the very nature of the society there should be different laws in different places and the Legislature controls the policy and enacts laws in the best interest of safety and security of the State. In fact, identical treatment in unequal circumstances would amount to inequality. So, a reasonable classification is only not permitted but is necessary if society is to progress. Thus, what Article 14 forbids is class-legislation but it does not forbid reasonable classification. The classification, however, must not be â€Å"arbitrary, artificial or evasive† but must be based on some real and substantial distinction bearing a just and reasonable relation to the object sought to be achieved by the legislation. Article 14 applies where equals are treated differently without any reasonable basis. But where equals and unequals are treated differently, Article 14 does not apply. Class legislation is that which makes an improper discrimination by conferring particular privileges upon a class of persons arbitrarily selected from a large number of persons, all of whom stand in the same relation to the privilege granted that between whom and the persons not so favoured no reasonable distinction or substantial difference can be found justifying the inclusion of one and the exclusion of the other from such privileges. Test of Reasonable Classification- Article 14 forbids class legislation, but it does not forbid reasonable classification of persons, objects and transactions by the legislature for the purpose of achieving specific ends. Classifications to be reasonable must fulfill two conditions:- (c)The classification must be founded on an intelligible differentia which distinguishes persons or things that are grouped together from others left out of the group; and (d)The differentia must have a rational relation to the object sought to be achieved by the Act. The important thing is that there must be a nexus between the basis of classification and the object of the Act which makes the classification. K. K. Mathew, J. highlighted the negative concept of the doctrine of equality before the law, as traditionally understood and posed the question whether the command of Article 14 is merely to ban creation of equality or to eliminate inequalities ? According to him Formal equality before the law has been found to be a shame in many areas. The true meaning and scope of Article 14 have been explained in a number of cases by supreme Court. In re-Special Court Bill case, Chandrachud, J. , (as he then was) reformulated new propositions to be followed regarding the applicability of Article 14. But this has been rightly criticized by Mr. Seervai as making the well-settled principles unsettled and creating confusion and uncertainity and encouraging litigation. The principles laid down by Das, J. , in Ramkrishna Dalmia v. Justice Tendolkar has not been disputed by Chandrachud, J. , and therefore there was no need to reformulate the same unless it was necessary to add something to the existing principles. In Sagir Ahmad v. State it has been clearly held that. â€Å"The question whether a classification is reasonable, and proper or not, must, however be judged more on commonsense than on legal subtleties. † New concept of Equality: Protection against Arbitrariness- â€Å"In E. P. Royappa v. State of Tamil Nadu, the Supreme Court has challenged the traditional concept of equality which was based on the reasonable classification and has laid down a new concept of equality. Chandrachud and Krishna Iyer, JJ. Propunded the new concept of equality in the following words- â€Å"Equality is a dynamic concept with many aspects and dimensions and it cannot be ‘cribbed, cabined and confined’ within traditional and doctrinal limits. From a positivistic point of view, equality is antithesis to arbitrariness. In fact, equality and arbitrariness are sworn enemies; one belong to the Rule of Law in a republic while the other, to the whim and caprice of an absolute monarch. Where an Act is arbitrary, it is implicit in it that it is unequal both according to political logic and constitutional law and is therefore violative of Article 14. † In Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India, Bhagwati, J. , again quoted with approval the new concept of equality propounded by him in the E. P. Royappa case. He said :- â€Å"†¦. Equality is a dynamic concept with many aspects and dimensions and it cannot be imprisoned within traditional and doctrinal limits. Article 14 strikes at arbitrariness in State action and ensures fairness and equality of treatment. The principle of reasonableness, which legally as well as philosophically, is an essential element of equality or non-arbitrariness, pervades Article 14 like a brooding omnipresence. † The basic postulate of the Rule of Law is that â€Å"justice should not only be done but it must also be seen to be done. † The society is composed of unequals and a welfare State has to strive by both executive and legislative action to help the less fortunate and to improve their condition so that social and economic unequality in the society may be bridged. This would require a law to be made applicable to that group in order to ameliorate their lot. Desai, J. , said that the doctrine of classification was evolved to sustain a legislation of State action in order to help the weaker sections of the society or some such segments of the society in need of succor. In ADM Jabalpur v. Shivakant Shukla, it is one of the most important cases when it comes to rule of law. In this case, the question before the court was ‘whether there was any rule of law in India apart from Article 21’. This was in context of suspension of enforcement of Articles 14, 21 and 22 during the proclamation of an emergency. The answer of the majority of the bench was in negative for the question of law. However Justice H. R. Khanna dissented from the majority opinion and observed that â€Å"Even in absence of Article 21 in the Constitution, the state has got no power to deprive a person of his life and liberty without the authority of law. In India, there are a few instances where Judiciary has infringed upon the areas of Executive and Legislature and this can be said from the example of the present Reservation system. Judiciary was against the fact of giving reservations to the creamy layer but the Executive and Legislature was not in favor of this. â€Å"Though many of them had critiqued about Rule of Law in Indian Constitution. Acc. To them, Law changes with time. As time evolves, Law has to change in that way. They see Rule of Law simply as a tool for guiding and maintaining the status quo of the society. For them maintain status quo is far from being neutral, serves to protect the powerful at the cost of others. More extreme critics claim that [t]he liberal paradigm has destroyed the rule of law. The rationale behind this statement is that, considering the real state of the world, many equate the rule of law with legality. However, this is a flawed equation as [l]egality simply means that there are laws and says nothing about the quality of those laws. Hence, there are many lacunas in the concept of rule of law which servers the reason of non-implementation of the concept properly. †